Roman History

The Third Punic War 149 to 146 BCE

The Carthaginians, after the Second Punic War, had scrupulously observed all of their treaty obligations. As mentioned, to please Rome they even went as far as to disavowing Hannibal and supplying Rome with grain to support Rome’s wars in the East. The treaty at the end of the Second Punic War confined Carthage to what is now modern day Tunisia. In order control Carthage; the Romans had empowered a small kingdom known as Masinissa to reclaim any territory in Africa they believed that their ancestors had controlled. Masinissa took full control of this right, and used their sway to seize Carthaginian ports and towns at their leisure. Under the stipulations of the treaty Carthage was not allowed to raise arms against another nation for any reason, without Rome’s approval. By 154 BCE, Masinissa had seized almost 1/3 of Carthage’s post-Punic War territories. When Carthage finally appealed to Rome in 154 BCE, Rome stalled.

In 152 BCE, Carthage finished paying off its extensive war indemnity. This may have been one of the primary causes for the Third Punic War, as Carthage was now worth more to Rome in ruins. In 150 BCE, Carthage declared war against Masinissa, despite their treaty obligations to Rome. The war went poorly and Carthage suffered several defeats in quick succession. Even worse, Rome now had a legitimate cause to declare war on Carthage. Rome declared war on Carthage in 149 BCE. In the spring of 146 BCE, Carthage fell. All the survivors were enslaved and the remains of the city were burnt to the ground. What remained of Carthage’s territory became the Roman province of Africa.

Challenges to the Republic 146 to 60 BCE

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By 133 BCE, the results of the Punic Wars and Rome’s rapid expansion overseas were producing serious socio-economic crisis. Largely, many historians and scholars have cited the period encompassing the Gracchi Land reforms, 133 to 121 BCE, as the beginning of the end of the Republic. Though at first glance it is not obvious that this period is might be reflective of the end of the Republic. But, certain themes, which will become apparent through a study of period, are reiterated again and again until the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.

In 133 BCE, Tiberius Gracchus took office as the tribune of the plebs (or the tribune of the people). Tiberius set about to fix one of the major problems of Rome had come about as a result of the expansion of Rome and the near constant warfare of the last century. This problem was manpower. Traditionally Roman legions were recruited from landowning Roman citizens. Between 164 BCE and 136 BCE, the number of men available for military service dropped by more then three legions, despite the growth of the Roman population during the period.

Until this period men within the Senate had largely been able to claim public land for their own uses. Tiberius’s Agrarian Commission sought to divide up the public land held by Senators, and reduce the land claims of senatorial families to 500 iugera (320 arces), and 250 iugera per son. As it can be imagined such a proposition was not popular within the Senate, as many of these Senators used their public land for agricultural purposes to supplement their wealth. This is not to say that within the land the Senators would become impoverished. Almost every Senator had a vast array of clients with whom he could enter into lucrative commercial enterprises. Perhaps the most unusual and potentially dangerous problem that arose from this bill was not the bill itself, but how it was proposed. Tiberius failed to actual consult the body before introducing the bill. This was not illegal, but it was highly uncommon for a Tribune of the Plebs to circumvent the Senate. This particular action would shadow further developments where politicians would appeal directly to the masses for legislative support.

Tiberius’s motives in creating the Land Reform Bill are the subject of great debate. However, most historians agree that is incorrect to paint this politician as a liberal reformer who had the welfare of the people in his mind. Tiberius did not start with some radical scheme of reform; rather, like most politicians in the Roman Republic he was looking towards gaining glory for his family. He believed that he could accomplish this appealing directly to the needs of the masses.

In order to protect his legislative initiative Tiberius ran for another term as Tribune. Again this step was contrary to tradition, but not illegal. In 133 BCE, on the day of the voting Tiberius was assassinated by his enemies within the Senate. Despite the fact that Tiberius was slain, the Land Commission Bill remained on the books. Though it was heavily modified by Tiberius’s senatorial advisories. The end result of the Tiberius’s bill was an increase a modest 20% increase in manpower.

The Gracchi as a family were not out of political spotlight quite yet. Ten years after his brother’s death, Gaius Gracchus ran for the tribuneship and was elected in 123 BCE. Like his brother, Gaius looked to improving the influence and status of his family. Though now he had to overcome the animosity of the senate, however he had the support of the common populace who still looked at his brother as almost a God among men. Gaius had two ambitions upon coming to office. First, there was the ambition to take revenge for the death of his brother and the slight on the honour of his family. Second, Gaius wanted to build a complex social-economic alliance to ensure a broader base of political support. In his two years as Tribune, Gaius enacted several controversial bills and proposals. Most of which were aimed at the lower classes. However, like his brother Gaius was attacked by a mob lead by more conservative Senators. After attempting to flee for his life, Gaius gave into the mob and had his slave kill him.

In death Gaius Gracchus, like his brother, became a hero among the people. Future politicians would learn that they could use the legacy of the Gracchi as political tools to peruse their own political agendas. The effects the Gracchi policies, land reform, the grain law, etc. had a great effect on the Republic, and for the most part bettered the lives of the poorest citizens. Perhaps the largest reform of the Gracchi’s was a reform they never intended. Their use of the Tribuneship, as a vehicle to promote reform legislation, despite the senatorial disapproval, transformed the office into a powerful position. The reforms of the Gracchi’s would become the hallmark for future popularis politicians, who would seek power from the people as opposed to the Senate.

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