Ancient Egyptian History

3100 to 2345 BCE – The Early Dynastic Period, the Unification of Egypt and the Old Kingdom

In order to properly understand Egyptian history, whether modern or ancient, it is imperative to have an understanding of Egyptian geography, as it is Egypt’s geography that has largely shaped its history. Egypt is located in the north-eastern corner of Africa. Its climate is a warm one, with a median temperature of approximately 28oc. Egypt is bordered on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by the Red Sea. There is one major river that runs through Egypt, the infamous Nile. The Nile not only supplies Egypt with water, but it also with rich natural fertilizers. Egypt itself is 97% desert the other 3% is mostly composed of rich agricultural land. This land is situated along the Nile and in the delta region in Northern Egypt. Egypt is largely dependent on the Nile for subsistence as there is little rain in the region. Because there is so little rain in the region, one of the most important inventions of the Early Dynastic period was irrigation. In order to irrigate their crops the Egyptians invented an irrigation device called the shaduf. The shaduf is a simple device that remains the most cost effective way for Egyptians to irrigate their crops, even today. The shaduf is a bucket-like device that allows its user to effortlessly scoop water from the Nile and into irrigation channels. The invention of irrigation is largely cited as the beginning of agricultural society as large amounts of grain could now be produced in an effective manner. The excess production of grain required a bureaucracy in order to oversee grain distribution and the effective storage of grain. The people who formed and control the bureaucracies eventually became the rulers and sovereigns of Egypt. In regards to geography it can be argued that the unique and successful culture of Ancient Egypt can attributed to the Nile and the relative isolation of Ancient produced by its surrounding deserts.

Much of the information we have about predynastic Egypt is subject to a great deal of criticism and scrutiny as the information we have is based mostly on the scant relics and artifacts. Predynastic is generally the term used to denote the period in Egypt’s history before the union of Upper and Lower Egypt. Pottery remains the best of the artifacts that we have been able to find in regards to predynastic Egypt. As the production method for pottery in this period makes it rather distinctive in comparison to the pottery of the Old Kingdom. Though we believe that most of the area in Egypt was desert in ancient times, there is reason to believe that deserts of Egypt had a lot more vegetation in ancient times. Little can be said in regards to the political situation in Egypt prior to unification as little is known about this period. It is known that there were two crowns that signified sovereignty over Upper and Lower Egypt. The Red Crown was the symbol of Lower Egypt while the White Crown was worn by the sovereign of Upper Egypt. In order to curb any confusion that may result from these terms, upper and lower, it is important to note that they refer to the Nile and not Egypt itself. Upper Egypt is in fact the southern portion of Egypt, while Lower Egypt is the northern portion of Egypt.

The Narmer Palette

According to records the first ruler of a united Egypt was Narmer. There is evidence that Narmer was in fact the same person as the second ruler of Egypt, Menes. Menes name has not actually ever been found on any monument, which is what has led scholars to believe that he may in fact be Narmer. This is a disputed part of Egyptian history, and as such this history will not try to deduce a solution to the question. Narmer is known from a number of Egyptian artifacts, including the most important one, the Narmer Palette. The Narmer Palette is a great slate palette with scenes that refer to the final conquest of Lower Egypt by the King of Upper Egypt. On one side of the palette, the king is shown wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt and on the other side he is shown wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. The unification is believed to have occurred in about 3100 BCE, but this date is open to a great deal of debate. The Unification of Egypt was a crucial point in Egyptian history as this event seems to have contributed to several other important developments. Accompanying the political unity of Egypt seems to have been the reorganization of the political administration, the development of an artistic design that we recognize today as Ancient Egyptian, and perhaps most importantly the earliest forms of writing was development during this period.

The period of rulers starting with Menes is known as the First Dynasty. The rule of Egyptian kings is broken down into dynasties on an important artifact known as the Palermo stone, though the dates given on the stone are subject to a great deal of skepticism. Menes is famous for his creation of a new capital city at the point where the Nile begins to branch off into the delta. The city, know as Memphis in later periods, a name taken from the Pyramid of Pepi I, was initially called White Walls for the large white walls that Menes constructed to surround the city. Allow the conquests of Narmer/Menes unified Egypt in a cultural sense; they did not end the immediate political strife that plagued the country. The Egyptians king that directly succeeded Narmer/Menes devoted much of their time to consolidation. They constructed new temples dedicated to the goddess of the delta in order to placate the conquered Lower Egyptians. The work of the first few rulers of the First Dynasty ensured a peaceful rule for the rest of the kings of the First and Second Dynasty. It is not until the rule last king of the Second Dynasty, Khasekhrmwy that military actions were needed in order reconcile the differences between the north and south. According to records found on the Palermo Stone, Khasekhrmwy put down a revolt by the cult of Seth, which opposed the traditional royal adherence to Horus. Khasekhrmwy’s actions were the final steps necessary for unification. With the country now completely unified, the first king of the Third Dynasty and the son-in-law of Khasekhrmwy, Djoser, would be able to use the wealth and manpower of Egypt to construct massive structures in his name.

Djoser’s Step Pyramid: To view a larger version of the image please click the image to open it in a new window.

Djoser (2635 –2615 BCE) is best-known Egyptian king of the Third Dynasty. His fame comes not from his exploits, as we have little information regarding what he did with his reign, but from his step pyramid, his greatest lasting legacy. The man who is generally given credit for this architectural marvel is Imhotep. Like Djoser, we know very little about Imhotep besides what ties him to the step pyramid. Imhotep was the foreman who oversaw the design and construction of the Step Pyramid. What his actual position in Djoser’s court is entirely unknown, by our best evidence suggests that he may have been a royal advisor of some kind. Imhotep’s Step Pyramid was the first great stone building constructed in Egypt, and its construction would set a precedent for further building projects in the Old Kingdom. Though there are other rulers that constructed pyramids during the Third Dynasty, none of them are very significant and thus can be looked over. According to the Palmero stone, Sneferu (2578 – 2553 BCE) was the first king of the Fourth Dynasty. During his reign he built two pyramids, the famous Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid. The Bent Pyramid is famous as the pyramid is literally bent. Scholars and archeologists believe that pyramid was initially build on too steep of an angle, so in order to keep the structure stable builders changed the angle of inclination. This kept the pyramid stable, but also gave it a bent appearance. This theory appears to be correct, as directly after the construction of this pyramid, Sneferu constructed the Red Pyramid one kilometer away from the Bent Pyramid. The Red Pyramid is the third largest pyramid in Ancient Egypt. It is called the Red Pyramid, because it is originally coating of white polished limestone has long since fallen off, revealing a reddish limestone underneath.

Khufu’s Great Pyramid at Giza: To view a larger version of the image please click the image to open it in a new window.

Despite the fact that Sneferu built two pyramids, he would be completely outdone by his successor, Khufu. Khufu (2553 – 2530 BCE) is the king that is famous for the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza. This fame is rightly deserved, as until the construction of the Eiffel Tower in 1889. The Great Pyramid is one of the most impressive projects ever completed in human history. The pyramid consists of over 2 000 000 blocks of stone, the average weight of each stone being more than two and a half tons. The fact that Khufu was able to build this pyramid suggests the enormous amount of resources and power that he had at his disposal. However, it is quite possible that his massive building project completely drained Egypt as only a few of the rulers of the Old Kingdom were able to muster the resources to construct such large monuments. The monuments after Khufu also tend to get progressively smaller, suggesting the great drain they had on manpower and resources. The next great Pyramid builder, Khafre (2521 – 2495 BCE) built Kharfe’s Pyramid and the Sphinx. His pyramid is almost, but not quite as big as the Great Pyramid. Besides his building projects, there is very little that we know about Khafre. The last important king of the Fourth Dynasty and the last of the great pyramid builders is known as Menkaure (2488 – 2470 BCE). Menkaure built the smallest of the three pyramids at Gaza, again another factoring suggesting the drain that pyramid building had on the resources of Ancient Egypt. What makes Menkaure’s pyramid special is that directly in front of it lie three smaller pyramids, each one holding the remains of one of his favoured wives.

Next: 2181 to 1650 BCE - The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom
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